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Lecture 5
Categories and types of present-day English and
Ukrainian
word-formation (part 2)
Contrast is the occurance
of different elements
to create interest
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...the game is to say something new
with old words
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1849)
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Plan
1. Compounding
1.1. Formal characteristics
1.2.The treatment of compounds.
1.3. Types of compounds
2 .Contrastive analysis of noun compounds in English and Ukrainian
2.1. Suggested classification in terms of syntactic paraphrase
2.2. “Bahuvrihi” compounds
2.3. Reduplicatives
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Productivity
one of the productive means of word-formation both
in English and in Ukrainian
is characterized by the
ease with which compound words are formed when need arises without becoming permanent units of the vocabulary
should be studied both diachronically and synchronically
TASKS:
1). The principal features of compounds which distinguish them from other linguistic units.
2). The semantic structure of compound words.
3). The principles of classification.
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Ф
DEFINITION
A compound is a lexical unit consisting of
more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and
semantically as a single word. I.V.Arnold states that these stems occur in English as free forms.
In Ukrainian compounding is subdivided into
1. Stem-combining with the help of interfixes о, е (доброзичливий, працездатний) or without them (триповерховий, всюдихiд);
2. Word-combining or juxtaposition (Lat. juxta - near, positio - place) - combining several words or word-forms in one complex word (хата-лабораторiя, салон-перукарня)
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Number and type of bases involved
In principle any
number of bases may be involved, but in English
except for a relatively minor class of items (normally abbreviated) compounds usually comprise two stems only, however internally complex each may be.
Compounding can take place within any of the word classes, but with very few exceptions, the resulting compound word in English is a noun, a verb or an adjective. In Ukrainian this list includes nouns, adjectives and adverbs.
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cohesion and integrity of a compound
The structural cohesion
and integrity of a compound may depend upon:
unity
of stress,
solid or hyphanated spelling,
semantic unity,
unity of morphological and syntactic functioning
or, more often, upon the combined effect of several of these factors
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Formal aspects
In English there are three forms of
compound words:
the closed form, in which the words are melded
together, such as firefly, secondhand, softball, childlike, crosstown, redhead, keyboard, makeup, notebook;
the hyphenated form, such as daughter-in-law, master-at-arms, over-the-counter, six-pack, six-year-old, mass-produced;
and the open form, such as post office, real estate, middle class, full moon, half sister, attorney general.
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Formal aspects
Modifying compounds are often hyphenated to avoid
confusion. The New York Public Library's Writer's Guide points out that
an old-furniture salesman clearly deals in old furniture, but an old furniture salesman would be an old man.
We probably would not have the same ambiguity, however, about a used car dealer. When compounded modifiers precede a noun, they are often hyphenated: part-time teacher, fifty-yard-wide field, fire-resistant curtains, high-speed chase. When those same modifying words come after the noun they are not hyphenated: a field fifty yards wide, curtains that are fire resistant, etc
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the structure of a compound
In describing the structure
of a compound we should examine the relations of
the members to each other.
Compounding associates stems drawn from the whole lexicon in a wide range of semantic relations. Although both bases in a compound are in principle equally open, they are normally in a relation whereby the first is modifying the second.
In short, compounding can in general be viewed as prefixation with open-class items. (A Comprehensive grammar, p. 1568)
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the structure of a compound
This does not mean
that a compound can be formed by placing any
lexical item in front of another. The relations between items brought together in compounding must be such that it is reasonable and useful to classify the second element in terms of the first. Such compounds are called endocentric.
In exocentric compounds there is no semantic centre as in scarecrow (figure of a man in old clothes set up to scare birds away from crops). Only the combination of both elements names the referent.
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The semantic integrity of a compound
is very often
idiomatic in its character, so that the meaning of
the whole is not a mere sum of its elements and the compound is often very different in meaning from a corresponding syntactic group.
e.g. a blackboard - a black board.
In some cases the original motivation of the idiomatic compound cannot be easily re-created.
e.g. blackmail -getting money or some other profit from a person by threats.
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syntactic relations
semantic connections within compounds can be treated
in terms of syntactic relations. Such mode of presentation
which (where possible) links compounds to sentential or clausal paraphrases is adopted by A Comprehensive Grammar, H.Marchand.
As an example of this approach we may take the two compounds: daydreaming and sightseeing which can be analyzed in terms of their sentential analogues:
X dreams during the day, i.e. verb + adverbial
X sees sights, i.e. verb + object
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Contrastive analysis of noun compounds
Subject + action
: вода спадає – водоспад this type is represented
by the following ways of combining of structural components:
noun (subject) + deverbal noun e.g.
English: sunrise, rainfall, headache, bee-sting, frostbite, daybreak, heartbeat, rainfall
Ukrainian: небосхил, серцебиття, зорепад, сонцестояння, снігопад
This type is rather productive in both contrasted languages.
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Contrastive analysis of noun compounds
deverbal noun + noun
(subject)
In English we refer to this type those compounds
where the first component is a verbal noun in –ing, e.g, flying machine, firing squad, investigating committee and it is very productive. In Ukrainian examples are few: падолист (арх.), трясогузка.
verb + noun (subject)
This type can be found only in English: watchdog, playboy.
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Contrastive analysis of noun compounds
Object + action: вказує
дорогу – дороговказ
noun (object) + deverbal noun
This is a
moderately productive type in English but very common in Ukrainian, e.g.
English: birth-control, handshake. Ukrainian: душогуб, сінокіс, гречкосій, родовід.
In Eng. we can single out a subtype noun (object) + verbal noun in – ing: book-keeping, town-planning. In Ukr. compounds of that subtype correspond to compounds in –ння: сироваріння, містобудування.
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Contrastive analysis of noun compounds
noun (object) + agent
noun
In English this is a very productive type and
designates concrete (usually human) agents: mathmaker, stockholder, hairsplitter. Note, however, dishwasher, lawn-mover. All compounds of this type in English are nouns with –er suffix. As in Ukrainian there is a wide range of suffixes forming agent nouns, so examples of compounds reflect this diversity: м’ясорубка, законодавець, користолюбець,квартиронаймач, містобудівник.
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Contrastive analysis of noun compounds
verb + noun (object)
Eng.:
call-girl, push-button, drawbridge. In Ukr. the first component of
these compounds is a verb in imperative: голиборода, крути- вус, пройдисвіт, дурисвіт. This type is often encountered in plant-names as дери- літ, ломикамінь, ломиніс and for poetic characterization of people as Вернигора, Перетанцюйбіс, Непийвода. This type of compounds belongs to the ancient layer of Ukr. vocabulary, for example, the God of Sun in ancient Ukrainian religion was named Дажбог : imperative form of the verb dadjú – дай and noun bogú – щастя, добробут.
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Contrastive analysis of noun compounds
Action + adverbial: ходить
пішки – пішохід.
In English this type of noun compounds
has the following subtypes:
verbal noun in – ing + noun (adverbial component which can be transformed into prepositional phrase), e.g. writing-desk (write at a desk), hiding place (hide in a place), walking stick (walk with a stick).
noun (adverbial component) + agent noun,e.g. city-dweller (dwell in the city), baby sitter (sit with the baby)
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Contrastive analysis of noun compounds
noun (adverbial component )
+ verbal noun in –ing, sunbathing (bathe in the
sun), handwriting (write by hand),
noun (adverbial component) + noun (converted from verb), homework (work at home), gunfight (fight with a gun).
In Eng. the 2) and the 4) subtypes can actually be combined and this combined type occurs in Ukr.: місцеперебування, праце-здатність, світогляд. Besides, In Ukr. there exists another productive type of compounds formation: adverb (adverbial component) + deverbal noun, e.g. скоропис, марнослів’я, пішохід.
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Summing up
Contrastive analysis of compound nouns in Eng.
and in Ukr. with syntactic paraphrase as tertium comparationis
reveals both isomorphic and allomorphic features in contrasted languages.
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‘verbless’ compounds
silkworm, молокозавод
(noun2 produces noun1),
doorknob, лісостеп, глинозем
(noun1 has noun2),
raindrop, скловата
(noun1 is of, consists of
noun2),
ashtray, птахоферма, зерносховище
(noun2 is for noun1),
girlfriend, лісосмуга
(noun2 is noun1),
security officer
(noun2 controls/works in connection with noun1)
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verbless compounds:
subject and object
[A] WINDMILL: noun1 +
noun2 (noun1 powers/operates noun2 “the wind powers the mill”).
e.g.: air-brake, steam engine, gas cooker.
[B] TOY FACTORY : noun1 + noun2 (noun2 produces/yields noun1, “the factory produces toys”). e.g.: honey-bee, silkworm, gold mine
Ukrainian: шовкопряд, нафтопромисел
[C] BLOODSTAIN: noun1 + noun2 (noun1 produces/yields noun2, “the blood produces stains”). e.g.: hay fever, tortoise-shell, whalebone, food poisoning.
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verbless compounds:
subject and object
[D] ′DOORKNOB: noun 1
+ noun2 (noun1 has noun2 “the door has a
knob”). This is a very productive type. Noun is inanimate. With animate nouns we use a noncompound genitive phrase: compare the table leg with the boy’s leg. e.g.: window-pane, cartwheel, bedpost.
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verbless compounds:
subject and object
[E] SECURITY OFFICER: noun1
+ noun2 (noun2 controls/works in connection with noun1 “The
officer looks after security”). e.g.: chairperson, fireman, deckhand. This is a very productive type, with the second constituent always a human agent. Indeed, so commonly has man been thus used (in its unmarked gender role, “human adult”) that in some compounds it has a reduced vowel /men/. This item and its gender-free alternative person might be viewed as a suffix. In Ukrainian terminology some final elements of compounds are called suffixoids : -грiйка, думець, -лов. e.g.: тiлогрiйка, однодумець, птахолов.
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Combining-form compounds
PSYCHO -ANALYSIS: noun1 (in its combining form)+
noun2 (= noun2 in respect of noun1) “the analysis
of the psyche”. This is a highly productive type both in Ukrainian and in English.
Various relations can be involved. Typically the first constituent does not occur as a separate noun stem, but the model has been widely imitated with common stems, with an infix (usually -o- but often -i-) as a link between the two parts: cryptography, insecticide, etc.
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Stress patterns
Stress patterns are various and the primary
stress often falls on the link vowel of the
combining form. Among common second constituents are -meter,-graph(y), -gram, -logy. In Ukrainian: -метр(iя), -граф(iя), -лог(iя), -ман(iя). The formations are especially in the fields of science and learning. In consequence, many are in international currency, adopted or adapted in numerous languages.
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Bahuvrihi componds
The term “bahuvrihi” refers not to the
pattern of formation but to the relation such compounds
have with their referents.
Neither constituent refers to the entity named but, the whole refers to a separate entity (usually a person) that is claimed to be characterized by the compound, in its literal or figurative meaning.
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Bahuvrihi componds
a highbrow means ‘an intellectual’, on the
basis of the facetious claim that people of intellectual
interest and cultivated tastes are likely to have a lofty expanse of forehead.
Many bahuvrihi compounds are somewhat disparaging (зневажливий) in tone and are used chiefly in informal style. They are formed on one or other of the patterns already described.
e.g: birdbrain, egghead, hardback, loudmouth, blockhead, butterfingers, featherweight.
Ukrainian: твердолобий, криворукий.
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back-formation
Speaking about compounding we should also mention that
a particularly productive type of back-formation relates to the
noun compounds in -ing and -er. For example, the verbs: sleep-walk, house-keep, dry-clean, sight-see.
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Reduplicatives
Some compounds have two or more constituents which
are either identical or only slightly different,e.g. goody-goody (a
self-consciously virtuous person, informal). The difference between the two constituents may be in the intial consonants, as in walkie-talkie, or in the medial vowels, e.g. criss-cross. Most of the reduplicatives are highly informal or familiar, and many belong to the sphere of child-parent talk, e.g. din-din (dinner).
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Reduplicatives
The most common uses of reduplicatives (sometimes called
‘jingles’) are:
[i] to imitate sounds, e.g. rat-a-tat [knocking on
door], tick-tock [of clock],
ha-ha [of laughter], bow-wow [of dog]
[ii] to suggest alternating movements, e.g. seesaw, flip-flop, ping- pong.
[iii] to disparage by suggesting instability, nonsense, insincerity, vacillation (вагання) etc.: higgledy-piggledy, hocus-pocus, wishy-washy, dilly-dally, shilly-shally.
[iv] to intensify, e.g. teeny-weeny, tip-top.