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Eating Disorders
Anorexia nervosa - An eating disorder characterized
by (1) maintenance of an abnormally low body weight,
(2) a distorted body image, (3) intense fears of gaining weight, and (4) in females, amenorrhea.
Bulimia nervosa - An eating disorder characterized by
(1) recurrent binge eating followed by self-induced purging, (2) accompanied by overconcern with body weight and shape.
Eating disorder - A psychological disorder characterized by (1) disturbed patterns of eating and (2) maladaptive ways of controlling body weight.
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Eating Disorders
Results of a large, population based survey
indicate that anorexia affects about 0.9% of women in
our society (about 9 in 1,000).
Bulimia is believed to affect about 1% to 3% of women.
Rates of anorexia and bulimia among men are estimated at about 0.3% (3 in 1,000) for anorexia and 0.1% 0.3% (1 to 3 in a thousand) for bulimia.
Many men with anorexia participate in sports, such as wrestling, that impose pressures on maintaining weight within a narrow range.
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Overview of Eating Disorders
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Subtypes of Anorexia
There are two general subtypes of
anorexia:
(1) A binge eating/purging type and
(2) a restrictive type.
First type characterized by frequent episodes of binge eating and purging; the second type is not. Individuals with the eating/purging type tend to have problems relating to impulse control, which in addition to binge-eating episodes may involve substance abuse or stealing
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Medical Complications of Anorexia
Anorexia can lead to
serious medical complications that in extrem cases can be
fatal.
Losses of as much as 35% of body weight may occur, and anemia may develop.
Females suffering from anorexia are also likely to encounter dermatological problems such as dry, cracking skin; fine, downy hair; even a yellowish discoloration of the skin that may persist for years after weight is regained.
Cardiovascular complications include heart irregularities, hypotension (low blood pressure), and associated dizziness upon standing, sometimes causing blackouts.
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Bulimia Nervosa
Bulimia derives from the Greek roots bous,
meaning “ox” or “cow,” and limos, meaning “hunger.”
Bulimia nervosa
is an eating disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of gorging on large quantities of food, followed by use of inappropriate ways to prevent weight gain.
These may include purging by means of selfinduced vomiting; use of laxatives, diuretics, or enemas; or fasting or engaging in excessive exercise.
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The Case of Ann
“I was just afraid
to go home and be around food.”
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Medical Complications of Bulimia
Many medical complications stem from
repeated vomiting: skin irritation around the mouth due to
frequent contact with stomach acid, blockage of salivary ducts, decay of tooth enamel, and dental cavities.
The acid from the vomit may damage taste receptors on the palate, making the person less sensitive to the taste of vomit with repeated purging.
Decreased sensitivity to the aversive taste of vomit may help maintain the purging behavior.
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Causes of Anorexia and Bulimia
Like other psychological disorders,
anorexia and bulimia involve a complex interplay of factors
(Polivy & Herman, 2002).
Most significant are social pressures that lead young women to base their self-worth on their physical appearance, especially their weight.
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Sociocultural Factors
Pressure to achieve an unrealistic standard of
thinness, combined with importance attached to appearance in defining
female role in society, can lead young women to become dissatisfied with their bodies (Stice, 2001).
These pressures are underscored by findings that among college women in one sample, 1 in 7 (14%) reported that buying a single chocolate bar in a store would cause them to feel embarrassed (Rozin, Bauer, & Catanese, 2003).
In another study, peer pressure to adhere to a thin body shape emerged as a strong predictor of bulimic behavior in young women (Young,McFatter,& Clopton, 2001).
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Sociocultural Factors
Exposure to media images of ultrathin women
can lead to the internalization of a thin ideal,
setting the stage for body dissatisfaction (Blowers et al., 2003; Cafri et al., 2005).
Even in children as young as eight, girls express more dissatisfaction with their bodies than do boys (Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2001).
Body mass index (BMI) - A standard measure of overweight and obesity that takes both body weight and height into account
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Psychosocial Factors
Although cultural pressures to conform to an
ultrathin female ideal play a major role in eating
disorders, the great majority of young women exposed to these pressures do not develop eating disorders.
A pattern of overly restricted dieting is common to
women with bulimia and anorexia. Women with eating disorders typically adopt very rigid dietary rules and practices about what they can eat, how much they can eat, and how often they can eat.
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Death by Starvation. A leading fashion model, Brazilian
Ana Carolina Reston, was just 21 when she died
in 2006 from complications due to anorexia. At the time of her death, the 5'7" Reston weighed only 88 pounds.
Anorexia is a widespread problem among fashion models today, as it is
among people in other occupations in which great emphasis is put on unrealistic
standards of thinness
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Family Factors
Eating disorders frequently develop against a backdrop
of family problems and conflicts. Some theorists focus on
the brutal effect of selfstarvation on parents.
They suggest that some adolescents refuse to eat to punish their parents for feelings of loneliness and alienation they experience in the home
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Family Factors
Families of young women with eating disorders
tend to be more often conflicted, less cohesive and
nurturing, yet more overprotective and critical than those of reference groups (Fairburn et al., 1997).
The parents seem less capable of promoting independence in their daughters. Conflicts with parents over issues of autonomy are often implicated in the development of both anorexia nervosa and bulimia.
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Biological Factors
Low levels of the chemical, or lack
of sensitivity of serotonin receptors in the brain, may
prompt bingeeating episodes, especially carbohydrate bingeing (Levitan et al., 1997).
This line of thinking is buttressed by evidence that antidepressants, such as Prozac, which increases serotonin activity, can decrease binge-eating episodes
in bulimic women (Walsh et al., 2004). We also know that many women with eating disorders are depressed or have a history of depression, and imbalances of serotonin are implicated in depressive disorders.
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Treatment of Eating Disorders
People with anorexia may be
hospitalized, especially when weight loss is severe or body
weight is falling rapidly.
In the hospital they are usually placed on a closely monitored refeeding regimen.
Behavioral therapy is also commonly used, with rewards made contingent on adherence to the refeeding protocol.
Commonly used reinforcers include ward privileges and social opportunities.
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Treatment of Eating Disorders
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) has emerged
as an effective treatment approach for bulimia and is
currently recognized as the treatment of choice for this disorder.
Interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT), a structured form of psychodynamic therapy, has also been used effectively in treating bulimia.
IPT focuses on resolving interpersonal problems in the belief that more effective interpersonal functioning will lead to healthier food habits and attitudes.
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Binge-Eating Disorder
Binge-eating disorder (BED) - A disorder characterized
by recurrent eating binges without purging; classified as a
potential disorder requiring further study.
Binge-eating disorder is classified in the DSM manual as a potential disorder requiring further study. Too little is known about the characteristics of people with BED to include it as an official diagnostic category.
However, we do know that BED is more common than either anorexia or bulimia, affecting about 3% of women and 2% of men at some point in their lives.
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Binge-Eating Disorder
People with BED are often described as
“compulsive overeaters.”
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) has shown herapeutic benefits in
treating binge-eating disorder and is now recognized as the treatment of choice.
Obesity - A condition of excess body fat; generally defined by a BMI of 30 or higher.
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Rates of obesity (age 20 or higher).
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Sleep Disorders
Sleep disorders - Persistent or recurrent sleeprelated
problems that cause distress or impaired functioning.
People with sleep
disorders may spend a few nights at a sleep center, where they are wired to devices that track their physiological responses during sleep or attempted sleep—brain waves, heart and respiration rates, and so on.
The DSM groups sleep disorders within two major categories: dyssomnias and parasomnias
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Dyssomnias
Dyssomnias - Sleep disorders involving disturbances in the
amount, quality, or timing of sleep.
There are five specific
types of dyssomnias:
Primary insomnia
Hypersomnia.
Narcolepsy
Breathing-related sleep disorder
Circadian rhythm sleep disorder.
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Insomnia
Insomnia - Difficulties falling asleep, remaining asleep, or
achieving restorative sleep.
Primary insomnia - A sleep disorder characterized
by chronic or persistent insomnia not caused by another psychological or physical disorder or by the effects of drugs or medications.
Chronic insomnia lasting a month or longer is often a sign of an underlying physical problem or a psychological disorder, such as depression, substance abuse, or physical illness.
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Hypersomnia
The word hypersomnia is derived from the Greek
hyper, meaning “over” or “more than normal,” and the
Latin somnus, meaning “sleep.”
Hypersomnia - A pattern of excessive sleepiness during the day.
The excessive sleepiness (sometimes referred to as “sleep drunkenness”) may take the form of difficulty awakening following a prolonged sleep period (typically 8 to 12 hours).
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Narcolepsy
The word narcolepsy derives from the Greek narke,
meaning “stupor” and lepsis, meaning “an attack.”
Narcolepsy - A
sleep disorder characterized by sudden, irresistible episodes of sleep.
They remain asleep for about 15 minutes. The person can be in the midst of a conversation at one moment and slump to the floor fast asleep a moment later.
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Sleep Center.
People with sleep disorders are often evaluated
in sleep centers, where their physiological responses can be
monitored as they sleep.
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Narcolepsy
The diagnosis is made when sleep attacks occur
daily for a period of 3 months or longer
and occur in conjunction with one or both of the following conditions:
(a) cataplexy (a sudden loss of muscular control)
(b) Intrusions of REM sleep in the transitional state between wakefulness and sleep.
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Breathing-Related Sleep Disorder
Breathing-related sleep disorder - A sleep
disorder in which sleep is repeatedly disrupted by difficulty
with breathing normally.
The subtypes of the disorder are distinguished in terms of the underlying causes of the breathing problem.
The most common type is obstructive sleep apnea, which involves repeated episodes of either complete or partial obstruction of breathing during sleep.
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Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorder
Circadian rhythm sleep disorder -
A sleep disorder characterized by a mismatch between the
body’s normal sleep–wake cycle and the demands of the environment.
The disruption in normal sleep patterns can lead to insomnia or hypersomnia.
For the disorder to be diagnosed, the mismatch must be persistent and severe enough to cause significant levels of distress or to impair the person’s ability to function in social, occupational, or other roles.
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Parasomnias
Parasomnias - Sleep disorders involving abnormal behaviors or
physiological events that occur during sleep or while falling
asleep.
Nightmare disorder - A sleep disorder characterized by recurrent awakenings due to frightening nightmares.
Nightmares are often associated with traumatic experiences and generally occur most often when the individual is under stress.
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Sleep apnea.
Sleep apnea (AP-ne-ah) is a common disorder in
which you have one or more pauses in breathing
or shallow breaths while you sleep. Breathing pauses can last from a few seconds to minutes. They may occur 30 times or more an hour. Typically, normal breathing then starts again, sometimes with a loud snort or choking sound.
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Sleep Terror Disorder
It typically begins with a loud,
piercing cry or scream in the night. The child
(most cases involve children) may be sitting up, appearing frightened and showing signs of extreme
arousal—profuse sweating with rapid heartbeat and respiration. The child may start talking incoherently or thrash about wildly but remain asleep.
These terrifying attacks, called sleep terrors, are more intense than ordinary nightmares.
Unlike nightmares, sleep terrors tend to occur during the first third of nightly sleep and during deep, non-
REM sleep
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Sleep Terror Disorder
Sleep terror disorder - A sleep
disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of sleep terror resulting
in abrupt awakenings.
The child (most cases involve children) may be sitting up, appearing frightened and showing signs of extreme
arousal—profuse sweating with rapid heartbeat and respiration. The child may start talking incoherently or thrash about wildly but remain asleep.
These terrifying attacks, called sleep terrors, are more intense than ordinary nightmares.
Unlike nightmares, sleep terrors tend to occur during the first third of nightly sleep and during deep, non- REM sleep
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Sleepwalking Disorder
Sleepwalking disorder - A sleep disorder involving
repeated episodes of sleepwalking.
Sleepwalking disorder is most common in
children, affecting between 1% and 5% of children, according to some estimates (APA, 2000).
Between 10% and 30% of children are believed to have had at least one episode of sleepwalking.
The prevalence of the disorder among adults is unknown, as are its causes.
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Treatment of Sleep Disorders
The most common method for
treating sleep disorders in the United States is the
use of sleep medications.
However, because of problems associated with these drugs, nonpharmacological treatment approaches, principally cognitive-behavioral therapy, have come to the fore.
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Biological Approaches
Antianxiety drugs are among the drugs often
used to treat insomnia, including the class of antianxiety
drugs called benzodiazepines (for example, Valium and Ativan).
When used for the short-term treatment of insomnia, sleep medications generally reduce the time it takes to get to sleep, increase total length of sleep, and reduce nightly awakenings.
Sleep medications can also produce chemical dependence if used regularly over time and can lead to tolerance (Pollack, 2004a
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Psychological Approaches
Psychological approaches have by and large been
limited to treatment of primary insomnia.
Cognitive-behavioral techniques are short
term in emphasis and focus on directly lowering states of physiological arousal, modifying maladaptive sleeping habits, and changing dysfunctional thoughts.
Cognitive-behavioral therapists typically use a combination of techniques, including stimulus control, establishment of a regular sleep–wake cycle, relaxation training, and rational restructuring.
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Psychological Approaches
Stimulus control involves changing the environment associated
with sleeping.
Rational restructuring involves substituting rational alternatives for self-defeating,
maladaptive thoughts or beliefs.
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) has emerged as the treatment of choice for chronic insomnia. CBT yields substantial therapeutic benefits, as measured by both reductions in the time it takes to get to sleep and improved sleep quality.
