Презентация на тему The science of psychology

study, and what are psychology’s four primary goals?
1.2 How did

structuralism and functionalism differ, and who were the important people in those early fields?
1.3 What were the basic ideas and who were the important people behind the early approaches known as Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism?
1.4  What are the basic ideas behind the seven modern perspectives, and what were the important contributions of Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers?
1.5  How does a psychologist differ from a psychiatrist, and what are the other types of professionals who work in the various areas of psychology?
1.6  Why is psychology considered a science, and what are the steps in using the scientific method?
1.7 How are naturalistic and laboratory settings used to describe behavior, and what are some of the advantages and disadvantages associated with these settings?
1.8  How are case studies and surveys used to describe behavior, and what are some drawbacks to each of these methods?
1.9  What is the correlational technique, and what does it tell researchers about relationships?
1.10  How are operational definitions, independent and dependent variables, experimental and control groups, and random assignment used in designing an experiment?
1.11  How do the placebo and experimenter effects cause problems in an experiment, and how can single-blind and double-blind studies control for these effects?
1.12 What are some basic elements of a real-world experiment?
1.13  What are some ethical concerns that can occur when conducting research with people and animals?
1.14  What are the basic principles of critical thinking, and how can critical thinking be useful in everyday life?

and mental processes
behavior: outward or overt actions and reactions
mental

processes: internal, covert activity of our minds

LO 1.1 Definition and Goals of Psychology

to faulty observations
Precise and careful measurement
LO 1.1 Definition and

Goals of Psychology

general explanation of a set of observations or facts
LO

1.1 Definition and Goals of Psychology

be changed?
LO 1.1 Definition and Goals of Psychology

the mind
LO 1.2 Structuralism and Functionalism

of objective introspection: the process of objectively examining and

measuring one’s thoughts and mental activities

LO 1.2 Structuralism and Functionalism

student; first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology
Structuralism

died out in the early 1900s.

LO 1.2 Structuralism and Functionalism

work, and play
Proposed by William James
Influenced the modern fields

of:
educational psychology
evolutionary psychology
industrial/organizational psychology

LO 1.2 Structuralism and Functionalism

a woman
African Americans and early psychology

LO 1.2 Structuralism and

Functionalism

sensation and perception
Gestalt ideas now part of the study

of cognitive psychology
cognitive psychology: field focusing not only on perception but also on learning, memory, thought processes, and problem solving

LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, Psychoanalysis, and Behaviorism

“fill in” the blanks hereand sees both of these

figures as circles rather than as a series of dots or a broken line.

of Sigmund Freud
Freud’s patients suffered from nervous disorders with

no apparent physical cause.
Freud proposed the existence of an unconscious (unaware) mind into which we push—or repress—our threatening urges and desires

LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, Psychoanalysis, and Behaviorism

apparent physical cause.
believed that these repressed urges, in trying

to surface, created nervous disorders
stressed the importance of early childhood experiences

LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, Psychoanalysis, and Behaviorism

only
must be directly seen and measured

LO 1.3 Early Gestalt,

Psychoanalysis, and Behaviorism

of Ivan Pavlov, who demonstrated that a reflex could

be conditioned (learned)
Watson believed that phobias were learned
case of “Little Albert”: baby taught to fear a white rat

LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, Psychoanalysis, and Behaviorism

therapy
LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, Psychoanalysis, and Behaviorism

on the development of a sense of self and

the discovery of motivations behind a person’s behavior other than sexual motivations

LO 1.4 Modern Perspectives: Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers

of voluntary behavior
Behaviorism became a major force in the

twentieth century
Skinner introduced the concept of reinforcement to behaviorism

LO 1.4 Modern Perspectives: Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers

roots of psychology in the field of philosophy
People have

free will: the freedom to choose their own destiny
Early founders:
Abraham Maslow
Carl Rogers

LO 1.4 Modern Perspectives: Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers

of each person to become the best person he

or she could be
self-actualization: achieving one’s full potential or actual self

LO 1.4 Modern Perspectives: Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers

solving, and learning
Sociocultural perspective
focuses on the relationship between social

behavior and culture

LO 1.4 Modern Perspectives :Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers

biological events occurring in the body, such as genetic

influences, hormones, and the activity of the nervous system

LO 1.4 Modern Perspectives: Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers

universal mental characteristics that all humans share
looks at the

way the mind works and why it works as it does
behavior seen as having an adaptive or survival value

LO 1.4 Modern Perspectives: Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers

and specialized training in one or more areas of

psychology
can do counseling, teaching, and research; may specialize in any one of a large number of areas within psychology
areas of specialization in psychology include clinical, counseling, developmental, social, and personality, among others

LO 1.5 Psychiatrist, Psychologist, and Other Professionals

Psychologist, and Other Professionals

specialized in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders

LO

1.5 Psychiatrist, Psychologist, and Other Professionals

some training in therapy methods who focuses on the

environmental conditions that can have an impact on mental disorders, such as poverty, overcrowding, stress, and drug abuse

LO 1.5 Psychiatrist, Psychologist, and Other Professionals

There are many different work settings for psychologists. Although

not obvious from the chart,many psychologists work in more than one setting. For example, a clinical psychologist may work in a hospital setting and teach at a university or college. (Tsapogas et al., 2006) (b) This pie chart shows the specialty areas of psychologists who recently received their doctorates. (Hoffer et al., 2007)

data so that bias and error in measurement are

reduced

LO 1.6 Psychology Is a Science; Steps in the Scientific Method

method:
Perceive the question
Form a hypothesis: tentative explanation of a

phenomenon based on observations.
Test the hypothesis
Draw conclusions
Report your results so that others can try to replicate, or repeat, the study or experiment to see whether the same results will be obtained in an effort to demonstrate reliability of results

LO 1.6 Psychology Is a Science; Steps in the Scientific Method

animals or humans behave in their normal environment
major advantage:

realistic picture of behavior

disadvantages
observer effect: tendency of people or animals to behave

differently when they know they are being observed
participant observation: a naturalistic observation in which the observer becomes a participant in the group being observed (to reduce observer effect)

disadvantages
observer bias: tendency of observers to see what they

expect to see
blind observers: people who do not know what the research question is (to reduce observer bias)
Each naturalistic setting is unique, and observations may not hold

animals or humans behave in a laboratory setting
advantages
control over

environment
allows use of specialized equipment

disadvantage
artificial situation may result in artificial behavior
Descriptive methods lead

to the formation of testable hypotheses

Study
study of one individual in great detail
advantage
tremendous amount of

detail
disadvantage
cannot apply to others
famous case study: Phineas Gage

ask a series of questions about the topic under

study
Given to representative sample
representative sample: randomly selected sample of subjects from a larger population of subjects
population: the entire group of people or animals in which the researcher is interested

advantages
data from large numbers of people
study covert behaviors
Survey disadvantages
researchers

have to ensure representative sample or the results are not meaningful
people are not always accurate (courtesy bias)

Sampling from Population


POPULATION
SAMPLE
INFERENCE

relationship between two variables
variable: anything that can change or

vary

variables go into a mathematical formula and produce a

correlation coefficient (r), which represents two things:
direction of the relationship
strength of the relationship
knowing the value of one variable allows researchers to predict the value of the other variable

from
-1.00 to +1.00.
The closer to +1.00 or -1.00,

the stronger the relationship between the variables
no correlation = 0.0
perfect correlation = -1.00 or +1.00

are related in the same direction
as one increases, the

other increases
as one decreases, the other decreases
negative correlation: variables are related in opposite direction
as one increases, the other decreases
Correlation does not prove causation!

strength of correlation. It should be noted that perfect

correlations, whether positive or negative, rarely occur in the real world.

deliberate manipulation of a variable to see whether corresponding

changes in behavior result, allowing the determination of cause-and-effect relationships
Operational Definition
definition of a variable of interest that allows it to be directly measured
definition: aggressive play

variable (IV)
the variable in an experiment that is manipulated

by the experimenter
IV: violent TV
Dependent variable (DV)
the variable in an experiment that represents the measurable response or behavior of the subjects in the experiment
DV: aggressive play

group
subjects in an experiment who are subjected to the

independent variable
experimental group: watch TV

group
subjects in an experiment who are not subjected to

the independent variable and who may receive a placebo treatment (controls for confounding variables).
control group: no TV

assignment
the process of assigning subjects to the experimental or

control groups randomly, so that each subject has an equal chance of being in either group
controls for confounding (extraneous, interfering) variables

SAMPLE
Control Group



Experimental Group



Test for Differences

Terms
Confounding Variables
SAMPLE

Are differences due to manipulation or confounding

variable (mood)?

Confounding Variables
SAMPLE
Control Group



Experimental Group




Differences are due to manipulation, not

an extraneous variable, because mood is randomly determined.

Placebo effect
the phenomenon in which the expectations of the

participants in a study can influence their behavior
Single-blind study
subjects do not know whether they are in the experimental or the control group (reduces placebo effect)

Experimenter effect
tendency of the experimenter’s expectations for a study

to unintentionally influence the results of the study
Double-blind study
neither the experimenter nor the subjects know which subjects are in the experimental or control group (reduces placebo effect and experimenter effect)

Single-blind study
the participants are “blind” to the treatment they

receive

Real World Experiment
Hypothesis
knowing that other people might think

one’s success in school is due to athletic ability rather than intelligence can make an athlete perform poorly on an academic test
Independent variable
timing of “high threat” question
Dependent variable
test scores

Real World Experiment
Experimental group
answered “high threat” question before

taking the test
Control group
answered “high threat” question after taking the test
Results-supported hypothesis
those asked the “high threat” question before the intellectual test scored significantly lower on that test

Conducting Research
Institutional review boards
groups of psychologists or other

professionals who look over each proposed research study and judge it according to its safety and consideration for the participants in the study

Conducting Research
Common ethical guidelines:
The rights and well-being of

participants must be weighed against the study’s value to science.
Participants must be allowed to make an informed decision about participation.
Deception must be justified.
Participants may withdraw from the study at any time.

Conducting Research
Common ethical guidelines (cont’d):
Participants must be protected

from risks or told explicitly of risks.
Investigators must debrief participants, telling them the true nature of the study and their expectations regarding the results.
Data must remain confidential.

Conducting Research
Common ethical guidelines (cont’d):
If for any reason

a study results in undesirable consequences for the participant, the researcher is responsible for detecting and removing, or correcting, these consequences.

Conducting Research
Animal research answers questions we could never

investigate with human research.
The focus is on avoiding exposing animal subjects to unnecessary pain or suffering.
Animals are used in approximately 7 percent of psychological studies.

thinking
making reasoned judgments about claims