Презентация на тему Supply, Demand, and Prices

semester 1
Simon
Clark
Supply,
Demand,
and Prices
Production,
Economic
Efficiency and
Market Failure

Maths for Economics

Sean
Brocklebank

David
Candon

semester 2
Growth, Employment, Inflation, and Short-run Fluctuations

Introduction to
Macroeconomics
Andreas Steinhauer
David

Candon

Is Economics 1 the right course for you?

We

offer another economics course:
Economic Principles and Applications

is for students who
do an Economics degree (compulsory);
did Higher,

A(S)-level, IB Economics or equivalent;
did Higher, A(S)-level, IB Mathematics or equivalent;
intend to transfer into a degree in economics

Otherwise,
Economic Principle and Applications (EPA) is likely to be the better course for you.

lectures per week
Tuesday, Thursday and Friday from 16:10 to

17:00 in this room
In semester 1, the Thursday lectures will be about maths

There is a two-hour tutorial every week
Tutorials start in week 2 and run until week 10 each semester
Times vary; you will be signed up automatically by the Student Allocator
Attendance and homework submission at tutorials is 10% of your final grade

Economics 1 LEARN site


All course information
Lecture notes and other teaching materials
Course Handbook

end of each 5-week block)
The October, February and March

exams are 60 minutes, MCQ-based and potentially worth 10% each, but we only count the best 2 out of 3. They occur
Semester 1 – Saturday after week 5 (22 October)
Semester 2 – Saturday after week 5 (18 February)
Semester 2 – Early in week 11 (date to be confirmed)
The December exam is 90 minutes, MCQ and written, and counts for 10% of your final grade
10% : Tutorial attendance & homework
Details on the next slide
10% : Essay
Due in the second semester
50% : Final exam
Consists of MCQs and written questions, scheduled in the April/May diet

Economics 1: Supply, Demand, and Prices

must bring homework at the beginning of their tutorial.

The homework must be at least three sides of written or two pages of typed work which attempts to answer the questions from the current week’s tutorial sheet. The answers do not have to be correct; all that is necessary is that the questions are attempted. You also need to submit a ‘declaration of work’ coversheet.

Each week that a student brings homework and attends their tutorial, they earn 1 mark;

Each week that a student attends their tutorial without bringing homework, they earn 0 marks. But you should still attend. Each week students miss their tutorial, they earn 0 marks.

A maximum of 14 marks are available, (14 marks are worth 10% of your final grade; fewer marks are worth fewer points on your grade!)

Economics 1: Supply, Demand, and Prices

the year

Lots of work (reading & writing) for the

chance at up to a 6% bonus on your final grade
Only makes sense if you really like reading and talking about economics
More details in the course handbook

First meeting : Wed 05 Oct @ 6:15pm
Topic of first meeting and other details have already been emailed (please contact sean.brocklebank@ed.ac.uk if in doubt)

core textbooks
One for micro in semester 1, one for

macro in semester 2
These books will be re-used in Economics 2

a suggested math text
Most of you will want the

maths book, although it is not obligatory if you are comfortable with the maths
Note that the book is in the 4th edition, but you can get any edition (they’re pretty similar)

helpdesk staffed by some of the best students who

took Econ 1 last year
Provisionally it is on Wednesdays and Fridays from 1pm to 2pm in room G3 of 30 Buccleuch Place, but check learn for updates

why?


Many economic magnitudes are inherently numerical - prices, quantities,

interest rates

maths offers a very efficient way to express relationships - between price and quantity demanded, or unemployment and inflation

maths enables us to analyse many interacting relationships at the same time

a central concept in economics – of rational maximising agents – is naturally modelled using maths

we need to formulate and test our theories using statistical techniques which require some maths

using maths to develop economic theories reduces the possibility of logical errors and inconsistencies

we use in Economics 1?
basic algebra solving simultaneous linear equations

logs and indices basic calculus
maximization

these techniques are developed and applied as part of the economics

on Learn:
a guide 'Mathematics for Economics' outlining the techniques used
maths exercises included in weekly tutorial sheets.


leaflet prepared by Economics Network
http://www.economicsnetwork.ac.uk/themes/maths_formula_sheet.pdf

http://www.metalproject.co.uk/, website of Mathematics for Economics: enhancing Teaching and Learning; esp. link to Teaching and Learning Guides


For a non-mathematical treatment, take
Economics: Principles and Applications (EPA)

1 - 5
Frank

& Cartwright

Thinking Like an Economist Ch1

Supply and Demand Ch2

Rational Consumer Choice Ch3

Individual and Market Demand Ch4


week 5, Saturday, 22th October, MCQ exam

note
these lectures will not be repeating the text book

read

the text book ahead of the lectures

if I don’t mention something in the lectures, it may still be examined

economic approach, consider some interesting problems:

the market for

lemons

the prisoners’ dilemma

ice cream wars

the demand for things without a market
e.g. good state schools

lemons

a seller has a car that is either good (a plum) or bad (a lemon)

plum lemon
value to buyer 3,000 1,500
value to seller 2,500 1,000

the difference of 1,500 between plum and lemon reflects repair costs to convert a lemon to a plum

with complete information:
a plum would sell for between 2,500 and 3,000
a lemon would sell for between 1,000 and 1,500

quality of the car is private information and hence

unknown by the buyer?

if the buyer cannot tell a plum from a lemon then there cannot be separate prices for the two types

So, how much would a buyer pay for a car of unknown type?

Recall:
plum lemon
value to buyer 3,000 1,500
value to seller 2,500 1,000

of plums and lemons offered for sale is 50-50,

then a randomly selected car would have an expected or average value to the buyer of ½ (3000+1500) = 2250

this is the maximum price a buyer would be willing to pay for a randomly selected car

but at this price or less no owner of a plum would be willing to sell, since he values a plum at 2,500

only lemons are offered for sale

this is a severe case of adverse selection


theory developed by Akerlof in 1970s (got Nobel prize in 2001)

of plums and lemons offered for sale is ¾

and ¼ and a buyer is offered a randomly selected car.

What is the maximum price a buyer would be willing to pay?

1 1,000
2 1,500
3 2,025
4 2,625
5 3,000

Question

reminder:
plum lemon

value to buyer 3,000 1,500
value to seller 2,500 1,000

for sale is ¾ and ¼ , then a

randomly selected car would have an expected or average value to the buyer of

¾ x 3000 + ¼ x 1500 = 2625

at this price, both sellers of plums and lemons are willing to sell

a buyer might get lucky or unlucky

but he or she is willing to take the risk

note: we are implicitly assuming risk neutrality

maximum price a buyer is willing to pay is

less than 2500, only lemons are offered for sale

buyers realise this (or find out through various sources)
and hence would not be prepared to pay more than 1,500

only lemons are sold, even though there is a potential gain from a market in plums

owners of plums cannot convince buyers that their cars are plums

mere verbal assurances about quality are not convincing since this is a tactic that can be costlessly imitated by owners of lemons

(possible) adverse selection
insurance markets careful/reckless drivers
healthy/already ill people

labour markets conscientious/lazy

workers

capital markets entrepreneurs with high/low risk projects

asset markets car owners know if the clutch is no good
house sellers know where the dry rot is

liquidity
banks selling bundles of debt (CDOs) know if the

underlying loans are toxic or not

here, market failure means a breakdown of secondary financial markets and a possibly severe loss of liquidity

this can be contagious and have macro (economy wide) consequences

to overcome adverse selection
an informative signal of quality is

one that it is not worth the owner of a lemon imitating

e.g. the seller of a plum can offer a warranty that a lemon owner would find unprofitable

in labour markets, education can be seen as a signal of productivity

not because education makes you productive

but because only productive workers can acquire education at low cost

this view of education developed by Spence, who shared the 2001 Nobel prize with Akerlof and Stiglitz

-10

0, -25

confess

-25, 0

-20, -20
confess
deny


first prisoner

second prisoner

two prisoners are questioned

separately by police

the police have some evidence and each prisoner can deny or confess

each cell shows 1st then 2nd prisoner’s payoff (negative of prison sentence)

happens?

deny

-10, -10

0, -25

confess

-25, 0

-20, -20
confess
deny


first prisoner

second prisoner
assume this situation

occurs only once, and they do not meet again

the numbers capture all aspects of the prisoners’ preferences

they cannot make binding agreements before they are caught



1 they both confess

2 they both deny

3 one confesses and
one denies

-20
confess
deny


first prisoner
second prisoner
1 they both confess

the prisoners dilemma have a very particular structure

importantly:
there

are no binding agreements
payoffs are completely given by the numbers
the game is only played once

is a metaphor for a wide range of situations,

where cooperation is mutually beneficial but not individually rational


collusion in cartels restrict or expand output
set high or low prices

trade wars low or high tariffs, quotas

overfishing restrict or expand catch

CO2 emissions restrict or expand pollution

arms races, advertising

situation is repeated? Does cooperation emerge?

How can we test

this theory?
Experimental economics is now a very active research area

In practice, people do seem to cooperate more than the theory suggests? Why? Maybe economics does not have the answer to everything!

some interesting questions to consider

ice-cream sellers simultaneously choose a location on a beach

consumers

are distributed evenly along the beach, and buy from the nearest seller



each seller’s profits is proportional to sales

where do they go?

they go?
1 0 and 1

2 0.25 and 0.75

3 0.33 and 0.67

4 both at

0.5

5 none of the above

0 0.25 0.33 0.5 0.67 0.75 1

Hint:

Both sellers know what you know.

Test your answer by asking if either seller can do any better, given the position of the other.

they go?
1 0 and 1

2 0.25 and 0.75

3 0.33 and 0.67

4 both at

0.5

5 none of the above

0 0.25 0.33 0.5 0.67 0.75 1

4 both at 0.5

be seen as a metaphor for many other situations

we

have to reinterpret what we mean by ‘the beach’ (known as the
Hotelling line)

a common application is to explain a lack of product variety, e.g. cars,
breakfast cereals

in models of political parties, the beach could be a Left-Right spectrum,
parties choose a political position, and consumers are voters

life’s a beach

to consider
what if there are 3 or more sellers?

what

if the beach is not a line but the circumference of a circle, or the whole circle, or some other space

how would we introduce transport costs?

and what do transport costs mean in a non-geographic setting?

how do we combine competition in both price and variety?

things without a market
a common problem is how to

estimate the benefits of a project or policy e.g. a new bridge, or laws restricting traffic speed

if available, data on existing prices and quantities is a starting point

if not, behaviour in other markets may give some information e.g. travel costs

implicitly it costs time, fuel etc to access some resources, such as a country park
if people pay these costs this reveals something about how they value the resource
can we use data on time, fuel costs etc to infer these values?

prepared to pay more for goods of higher quality,

or that embody desired characteristics

or will accept less pay for jobs that provide valued benefits

require more pay for jobs that have costs or disadvantages

think of goods or jobs as a bundle

can we put a value on each component of the bundle?

house: price reflects
size, style, number of rooms
location:
proximity to amenities

(parks, transport links, access to state schools)
local environment (e.g. noise etc)

implicitly there is a market for ‘peace and quiet’, or access to good state schools’

we can collect data on prices and characteristics

then statistically disentangle influence on price of each characteristic

school quality
Cheshire and Sheppard, (Economic Journal Nov 2004)

looked at

house prices in Reading in 1999/2000

price: min=£45,000 max=£385,000 mean=£127,000

price depends on (inter alia):
detached, semi, terrace etc size of plot
no. of bedrooms, baths etc if near Thames
distance from centre of town if near industry
transport links ethnic mix

quality of primary school (success rate at Key Stage 2)
quality of secondary school (success rate at GCSEs)

analysis, they worked out ‘the price of quality’

study
For the average house the difference between the best

and worst schools is
secondary: 19% or £23,750.
primary: 34% or £42,550.

Home buyers discount for risk: the more the variability in a school’s past results, the less is paid for current school quality. i.e. they are risk averse

Only the 'best' (top 10%) state schools command major money: being in the catchment area of an average school compared to even that of the very worst has little impact on prices.

The added cost for a home with access to the best state schools is close to the total cost of school fees for comparable private schools.

problems
simple numerical examples can be very enlightening

simple models can

be enlightening – no need for lots of complications

eventually we do need to test the models with data

some concepts appear in totally different settings
apparently unrelated problems sometimes have a common structure