Презентация на тему Greek Philosophy Part II

BC–399 BC)
Socrates (469 BC–399 BC)
Credited as one

of the founders of Western philosophy.
Known only through the classical accounts of his students.
Plato's dialogues are the most comprehensive accounts of Socrates to survive from antiquity.
Socrates who also lends his name to the concepts of Socratic irony and the Socratic method.

with sophists.
Personal experience is important, but denied that no

truth exists beyond personal opinion.
Method of inductive definition
Examine instances of a concept
Ask the question – what is it that all instances have in common?
Find the essence of the instances of the concept.
Seek to find general concepts by examining isolated instances.

was a universally accepted definition of a concept.
Understanding essences

constituted knowledge and goal of life was to gain knowledge.
Socrates was sentenced to death at the age of 70 years for corrupting the youth of Athens

– 348 BCE)
He was a classical Greek philosopher

and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the western world.
Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the foundations of Western philosophy.
Plato was originally a student of Socrates, and was as influenced by his thinking and unjust death.

forms
Everything in the empirical world is an inferior manifestation

of the pure form, which exists in the abstract.
Experience through our senses comes from interaction of the pure form and matter of the world
Result is an experience less than perfect.
True knowledge can be attained only through reason; rational thought regarding the forms.

of the divided line
Description of Plato’s view of

acquisition of true knowledge.
The analogy divides the world and our states of mind into points along a divided line.
An attempt to gain knowledge through sensory experience is doomed to ignorance or opinion.
Imagining is lowest form of understanding
Direct experience with objects is slightly better, but still just beliefs or opinions.

of the divided line
Contemplation of mathematical relationships is

better than imagination and direct experience.
Highest form of thinking involves embracing the forms.
True knowledge and intelligence comes only from understanding the abstract forms.
The allegory of the cave
Demonstrates how difficult it is to deliver humans from ignorance

theory of knowledge
How do we know the forms

if we cannot know them through sensory experiences?
Prior to coming into the body, the soul dwelt in pure, complete knowledge.
Knowledge is innate and attained only through introspection
Thus, all true knowledge comes only from remembering the experiences the soul had prior to entering the body.

theory of knowledge
The reminiscence theory of knowledge made

Plato a rationalist who stressed mental operations to gain knowledge already in the soul.

of the soul
Soul comprised of three parts (tripartite)
Rational

component
immortal, existed with the forms.
Courageous (emotional or spirited) component
mortal emotions such as fear, rage, and love
Appetite component
mortal needs such as hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior that must be satisfied

of the soul
To obtain knowledge, one must suppress bodily

needs and concentrate on rational pursuits.
Job of rational component is to postpone and inhibit immediate gratification when it is in the best long-term benefit of the person.

described a utopian society with three types of people

performing specific functions:
appetitive individuals – workers and slaves.
courageous individuals – soldiers.
rational individuals – philosopher-kings.

that all was predetermined.
A complete nativist, people are destined

to be a slave, soldier, or philosopher-king.
While asleep, the baser appetites in people are fulfilled no matter how rational they are while awake
Plato is referring to dreams although he does not mention them specifically.

of his disdain for empirical observation and sensory experience

as means of gaining knowledge, he actually inhibited progress in science.
Dualism in humans

BC – 322 BC)
A student of Plato and

teacher of Alexander the Great.
He was the first to create a comprehensive system of Western philosophy, encompassing morality and aesthetics, logic and science, politics and metaphysics.
Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues, but only about one-third of the original works have survived.

Physical sciences
profoundly shaped medieval scholarship, and its influence

extended well into the Renaissance, although ultimately replaced by Newtonian Physics.
Biological sciences,
Some observations were confirmed to be accurate only in the 19 C.
Logic
His work was incorporated into modern formal logic.

Metaphysics
He had a profound influence on philosophical and theological

thinking in the Islamic and Jewish traditions in the Middle Ages.
It continues to influence Christian theology, especially Eastern Orthodox theology, and the scholastic tradition of the Roman Catholic Church.
All aspects of Aristotle's views continue to be the object of active academic study today.

Plato contrasted.
Plato:
Essences (truths) in the forms that exist

independent of nature, known only by using introspection (rationalism)
Aristotle
Essences could be known only by studying nature through individual observation of phenomena (empiricism).
Aristotle a rationalist and empiricist.
Mind employed to gain knowledge (rationalist), object of the rational thought was information from sensory experience (empiricism).

Located just outside the walls of ancient Athens
Before starting

the Lyceum, Aristotle had studied for 19 years (366-347 BC) at Plato's Academy.
Head of his school until 323 BC
Athenians turned against the Alexandrian Empire upon Alexander the Great’s death (his student 343- 335 BCE)
He left Athens fearing for his life, saying famously that "Athens must not be allowed to sin twice against philosophy."
The school was sacked by Romans general
The location of the complex was lost for centuries, until it was rediscovered in 1996, during excavations which revealed foundations and few other remains.

causes
Aristotle’s four causes, to understand object or phenomenon, one

must know causes.
Material cause
matter of which it is made
Formal cause
form or pattern of the object – what is it?
Efficient cause
force that transforms the matter – who made it?
Final cause
purpose – why it exists.

teleology, and entelechy
Everything has a cause and purpose
Teleology, meaning

that everything has a function (entelechy) built into it.
Entelechy keeps an object moving and developing in its prescribed direction to full potential
Scala naturae is the idea that nature is arranged in a hierarchy ranging from neutral matter to the unmoved mover, which is the cause of everything in nature

souls: What gives life:
Vegetative (nutritive) soul
Provides growth, assimilation

of food, and reproduction
Possessed by plants
Sensitive soul
Functions of vegetative soul plus the ability to sense and respond to the environment, experience pleasure and pain, and use memory.
Possessed by animals.

souls:
Rational soul
Vegetative and sensitive souls plus ability for thinking

and rational thought.
Possessed by humans.
Sensation
From the five senses
Perception was explained by motion of objects that stimulate a particular sensory system.
We can trust our senses to yield an accurate representation of the real world environment

passive and active reason.
Sensory information is only first step

in gaining knowledge – necessary but not sufficient element in obtaining knowledge.
Information from multiple sensory systems must be combined for effective interactions with the environment.
Common sense
Coordinates and synthesizes information from all of the senses for more meaningful and effective experience.

passive and active reason.
Passive reason
Uses synthesized experience to function

in everyday life
Active reason
Uses synthesized experience to abstract principles and essences
Highest form of thinking
Active reason provides humans with their entelechy
Purpose is to engage in active reason
Source of greatest pleasure.

everything in nature its purpose (entelechy)
Caused everything in

nature, but was not caused by anything itself
It set nature in motion and little else
It was a logical necessity, not a god

recall
Remembering
Spontaneous recollection of a previous experience
Recall
An actual

mental search for a previous experience
Practice of recall affected by laws of association
Law of contiguity
Associate things that occurred close in time and/or in same situations

similarity
Similar things are associated
Law of contrast
Opposite things

are associated
Law of frequency
More often events occur together – stronger the association
Associationism
Belief that associations can be used to explain origins of ideas, memory, or how complex ideas are formed from simple ones
Laws of association are basis for most theories of learning and association.

dreaming
Imagination is the lingering effects of sensory experience.
Dreams are

images from past experiences which are stimulated by events inside and outside the body
Motivation and happiness
Happiness is doing what is natural
Fulfills one’s purpose
Purpose for humans is to think rationally
Humans are motivated by appetites but can use rational powers to inhibit them.

happiness
Conflicts arise between immediate satisfaction and biological drives and

more remote rational goals.
Like most Greeks, Aristotle held self-control and moderation as a high ideal.
The best life lived according to golden mean (between excess and deficiency).
Emotions and selective perception
Emotions function to amplify any existing tendency (behavior).
Influences perception to be selective.

Philosophical Tradition
The Greek cosmologists broke loose from the accepted

traditions and speculated; they also engaged in critical discussion.
After Aristotle’s death, philosophers either relied on teachings of past authorities, particularly Aristotle, or turned attention from descriptions of the universe to models of human conduct.
The critical, questioning tradition of the Greeks was not present until revived in the Renaissance.