Презентация на тему Acute abdomen and peritonitis

severe abdominal pain (resulting from inflammation, obstruction, infarction, perforation,

or rupture of intra-abdominal organs).

Acute abdomen requires urgent evaluation and diagnosis because it may indicate a condition that requires urgent surgical intervention

Acute Abdomen: Definition

nerve fibres in response to stretching or excessive contraction
Dull

in nature and vague
Poorly localised
Foregut ? epigastrium
Midgut ? para-umbilical
Hindgut ? suprapubic

Somatic pain
Comes from parietal peritoneum (which is innervated by somatic nerves)
Sharp in nature
Well localised
Made worse by movement, better by lying still

Referred pain
Pain felt some distance away from its origin
Mechanism not clear
Most popular theory: nerves transmitting visceral and somatic pain (e.g. from viscera or parietal peritoneum) travel to specific spinal cord segment and can result in irriation of sensory nerves that supply the corresponding dermatomes
E.g. Gallbladder inflammation can irritate diaphragm which is innervated by C3,4,5. Dermatomes of these spinal cord segments supplies the shoulder, hence referred shoulder tip pain.

Physiology of Abdominal Pain

ulcer, gastroenteritis, diverticulitis, intestinal obstruction, strangulated hernia

Hepatobiliary
Biliary colic, cholecystitis,

cholangitis, pancreatitis, hepatitis

Vascular
Ruptured AAA, acute mesenteric ischaemia, ischaemic colitis

Urological
Renal colic, UTI, testicular torsion, acute urinary retention

Gynaecological
Ectopic pregnancy, ovarian cyst pathology (rupture/haemorrhage into cyst/torsion), salpingitis, endometriosis, mittelschmerz (mid-cycle pain)

Medical (can mimic an acute abdomen)
Pneumonia, MI, DKA, sickle cell crisis, porphyria

Causes of Acute Abdomen

the above

Most diagnosis can be made on history and

examination alone, with investigations to confirm the diagnosis

Acute Abdomen: Making the diagnosis

diagnosis

SOCRATES
Site and duration
Onset – sudden vs gradual
Character – colicky,

sharp, dull, burning
Radiation – e.g. Into back or shoulder
(Associated symptoms – discussed later)
Timing – constant, coming and going
Exacerbating and alleviating factors
Severity
2 other useful questions about the pain:
Have you had a similar pain previously?
What do you think could be causing the pain?

Acute Abdomen: The History

PR bleeding/melaena, dyspeptic symptoms, vomiting
Urine: dysuria, heamaturia, urgency/frequency
Gynaecological: normal

cycle, LMP, IMB, dysmenorrhoea/menorrhagia, PV discharge
Others: fever, appetite, weight loss, distention

Any previous abdominal investigations and findings

Other components of history
PMH e.g. Could patient be having a flare up/complication of a known condition e.g. Known diverticular disease, previous peptic ulcers, known gallstones
DH e.g. Steroids and peptic ulcer disease/acute pancreatitis
SH e.g. Alcoholics and acute pancreatitis

Acute Abdomen: The History

vs generalised)
Guarding
Percussion tenderness
Rebound tenderness
Mass
Specific signs (Rovsing’s sign, murphy’s sign,

cullen’s sign, grey-turner’s sign)

Percussion: shifting dullness/tympanic

Auscultation: bowel sounds
Absent
Normal
Hyperactive
tinkling

The above will point you to potential diagnosis

Acute Abdomen: The Examination

colon (cancer)
Lung (pneumonia)


Acute Abdomen: The Examination
Ascending colon (cancer,)
Kidney (stone,

hydronephrosis, UTI)

Appendix (Appendicitis)
Caecum (tumour, volvulus, closed loop obstruction)
Terminal ileum (crohns, mekels)
Ovaries/fallopian tube (ectopic, cyst, PID)
Ureter (renal colic)

Liver (hepatitis)
Gall bladder (gallstones)
Stomach (peptic ulcer, gastritis)
Transverse colon (cancer)
Pancreas (pancreatitis)
Heart (MI)

Spleen (rupture)
Pancreas (pancreatitis)
Stomach (peptic ulcer)
Splenic flexure colon (cancer)
Lung (pneumonia)

Descending colon (cancer)
Kidney (stone, hydronephrosis, UTI)

Sigmoid colon (diverticulitis, colitis, cancer)
Ovaries/fallopian tube (ectopic, cyst, PID)
Ureter (renal colic)

Uterus (fibroid, cancer)
Bladder (UTI, stone)
Sigmoid colon (diverticulitis)

Small bowel (obstruction/ischaemia)
Aorta (leaking AAA)

CRP, G&S, ABG)
Urine dipstick
Pregnancy test (all women of

child bearing age with lower abdominal pain)
AXR/E-CXR
ECG

More complex investigations:
USS
Contrast studies
Endoscopy (OGD/colonoscopy/ERCP)
CT
MRI

Acute Abdomen: Investigations

consuming tests when an indication for surgery is clear

The

following three categories of general surgical problems will require emergency surgery
Generalised peritonitis on examination (regardless of cause – except acute pancreatitis, hence all patients get amylase)
Perforation (air under diaphragm on E-CXR)
Irreducible and tender hernia (risk of strangulation)

Acute Abdomen: Investigations

localised or generalised

Peritonism – refers to specific features found

on abdominal examination in those with peritonitis
Characterised by tenderness with guarding, rebound/percussion tenderness on examination
Peritonism is eased by lying still and exacerbated by any movement
Maybe localised or generalised

Generalised peritonitis is a surgical emergency – requires resuscitation and immediate surgery

Peritonitis

gangrene or perforation of a viscus (appendicitis/diverticulitis/perforated ulcer). This

is the most common cause of peritonitis

Non-infective – leakage of certain sterile body fluids into the peritoneum can cause peritonitis.
Gastric juice (peptic ulcer)
Bile (liver biopsy, post-cholecystectomy)
Urine (pelvic trauma)
Pancreatic juice (pancreatitis)
Blood (endometriosis, ruptured ovarian cyst, abdominal trauma)
Note: although sterile at first these fluids often become infected within 24-48 hrs of leakage from the affected organ resulting in a bacterial peritonitis

Causes of Generalised Peritonitis

to cause, or maybe generalised)
Worse on movement (hence shallow

breathing in those with generalised peritonitis to keep the abdomen still)
Eased by lying still
If localised peritonitis – peritonism is in a single area of the abdomen
If generalised peritonitis – peritonism is all over abdomen with board like rigidity

Signs of ileus (generalised peritonitis > localised peritonitis)
Distention
Vomiting
Tympanic abdomen with reduced bowel sounds

Signs of systemic shock
Tachycardia, tachypnoea, hypotension, low urine output
More prominent with generalised than localised peritonitis

Clinical features of Peritonitis

localised peritonitis
Investigations are those listed on “investigations for acute

abdomen” slide
All patients get simple investigations
Complex investigations are requested depending on suspected diagnosis (remember that some diagnoses do not require complex investigations and are entirely based on history and examination e.g. Appendicitis)

If generalised peritonitis
Surgical emergency – will require emergency operation
Following investigations should be performed:
Bloods: FBC, U&E, LFT, Amylase!! (acute pancreatitis can present with generalised peritonitis and does not require emergency surgery), CRP, clotting, G&S, ABG
AXR and Erect CXR
CT scan
Only if this can be performed urgently and patient is stable
If this can not be performed urgently or patient is unstable then for surgery without delay
Does not change management (i.e. Patients will need emergency surgery regardless) but useful as will identify cause of peritonitis therefore helping to plan surgical procedure
Other Time consuming complex investigations should not be performed as they will only delay definitive treatment (emergency surgery) and add very little

Investigations for Peritonitis

antibiotics (Augmentin and metronidazole)
Analgesia
Surgery (with or without preceeding CT

depending on availability and stability of patients)

Resuscitation of Generalised Peritonitis