of individual differences – WHAT we differ on, and
WHY.Next week we will look at measuring differences – more WHY and HOW
Outline
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Презентация на тему Lecture Week 10 - What makes us different from one another
Содержание
- 2. This week we will focus on several
- 3. 4/22/2015
- 4. A great deal of what you may
- 5. Why are we interested in Personality?To explain
- 6. Hippocrates, Galen, Eysenck 450BC 160AD 19734/22/2015
- 7. A COLLECTION OFThoughts Emotions Description Perceptions Talents Behaviours Attitudes Habits
- 8. Definitions of PersonalityBurger, 2004: “Personality can be
- 9. Approaches to PersonalityResearchers have taken many different
- 10. Trait ApproachWhat is a trait?“relatively stable disposition
- 11. Trait approach to personalityPersonality characteristics are relatively
- 12. Type vs. TraitEarly type theories: distinct and
- 13. Identification of important traitsLexical ApproachStarts with lexical
- 14. Eysenck’s hierarchical model of personalitySupertrait (superfactor) e.g.
- 15. Eysenck’s Supertraits2 supertraits as underlying dimensions of
- 16. Eysenck’s Supertraits Eysenck & Eysenck (1985) Traits
- 17. Biological Basis for Eysenck’s Personality Dimensions?Extraversion –
- 18. Hebb’s version of Yerkes-Dodson law4/22/2015
- 19. The Big Five Dimensions of PersonalityResearchers have
- 20. Source: Costa and McCrae (1985)
- 21. The Big Five Dimensions of PersonalityBig Five
- 22. What is Intelligence?Innate, general cognitive ability (g)?Spearman
- 23. Do behaviours that reflect intelligence change with
- 24. Implicit Theories of Intelligence by Countries Around
- 25. Early Influences: Francis GaltonCousin of Charles DarwinMeasured
- 26. Early Influences : Alfred BinetThe “father” of
- 27. Theories of IntelligenceCharles Spearman (1927) was one
- 28. Spearman’s two-factor theoryspecific abilities – ‘s’A factor
- 29. Spearman’s two-factor theoryAccording to Spearman, the most
- 30. Is Intelligence general or specific?Broad agreement that
- 31. Different proponents of multiple intelligence do not
- 32. Li (1996) summarizes Gardner's theory as follows:Premise
- 33. Triarchic theory of intelligence. Viewed other theories
- 34. One of the other ways in which
- 35. Theories of AttachmentExplaining why attachment occurs (the
- 36. Theories of AttachmentBut there are problems with
- 37. Bowlby’s Theory of AttachmentJohn Bowlby proposed what
- 38. What about ways in which we differ
- 39. Individual Differences SummaryPeople demonstrate individual differences in
- 40. Скачать презентацию
- 41. Похожие презентации
This week we will focus on several aspects of individual differences – WHAT we differ on, and WHY.Next week we will look at measuring differences – more WHY and HOWOutline
Слайд 2 This week we will focus on several aspects
Next week we will look at measuring differences – more WHY and HOW
Слайд 4 A great deal of what you may have
learned about so far focuses on similarities in behaviour,
or how groups of people will behaveOne important aspect of psychology is Individual Differences, or ways in which we differ
The main psychological characteristics that relate to Individual Differences are:
Personality
Intelligence
We will also briefly examine:
Attachment
Atypical
Psychology and ways in which we differ
Слайд 5
Why are we interested in Personality?
To explain the
motivational basis of behaviour
To provide descriptions/categorizations of how individuals
behaveTo understand how personality develops
To be able to develop interventions for behaviour change
Слайд 7
A COLLECTION OF
Thoughts Emotions Description
Perceptions Talents Behaviours Attitudes Habits
Values Beliefs
Think about two people that you know that
have different personalities What do we mean by the term
“personality”?
NOT
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MhX_nXTF0Ec&playnext=1&list=PL316DEF5B261A5519
Слайд 8
Definitions of Personality
Burger, 2004: “Personality can be defined
as consistent behaviour patterns and intrapersonal processes originating within
the individual.”Allport, 1961: “Personality is the dynamic organization, within the person, of psychophysical systems that create the person’s characteristic patterns of behaviour, thoughts and feelings”.
Слайд 9
Approaches to Personality
Researchers have taken many different approaches
to describe and attempt to explain personality
Trait approach –
the focus for today (Eysenck, Cattell)Psychodynamic approach (Freud) -unconscious, internal conflicts. The dynamics of this conflict through early stages of development can determine an individual's personality in adulthood.
Humanistic approach, (Maslow, Rogers) - five basic beliefs: humans supersede the sum of their parts, existence is a uniquely human context, are aware of being aware (conscious), free will, intentional goals.
Situational approach (Bandura) – role of social learning, Modelling & Reinforcement.
Слайд 10
Trait Approach
What is a trait?
“relatively stable disposition to
behave in a particular and consistent way” (Schacter et
al., 2012, p. 493).Gordon Allport (1937) —personality can be understood as a combination of traits
Are the personalities of the two people, one with a tidy desk, one with an untidy one, likely to be different?
Trait theorists include Galton, Allport, Cattell, Eysenck and Costa & McCrae
Слайд 11
Trait approach to personality
Personality characteristics are relatively stable.
Traits
show stability over time.
Aims to find the basic “structure”
of personality.Aims to find ways of measuring personality.
Слайд 12
Type vs. Trait
Early type theories: distinct and discontinuous
categories (e.g. sex – either male or female).
Jung described
Extraversion-Introversion as discontinuous (first person to mention E & I).or
Trait theories: dimensional approach; assume people differ along continuous variables or dimensions.
Extravert Introvert
Extravert
Introvert
Слайд 13
Identification of important traits
Lexical Approach
Starts with lexical hypothesis.
All important individual differences have become encoded within the
natural language over time.Good starting point for identifying important individual differences, however not the only approach used.
Statistical Approach (Factor Analysis)
Starts with a large pool of items. Goal is to identify major dimensions of personality.
Most researchers using lexical approach turn to statistical approach to distil ratings of trait adjectives into basic categories of traits.
Слайд 14
Eysenck’s hierarchical model of personality
Supertrait (superfactor) e.g. extravert
(ENP)
Traits (factor) e.g. degree of sociability
Habits e.g. liking for
lively social eventsSpecific behaviours e.g. socialising with friends at the end-of-term party
Слайд 15
Eysenck’s Supertraits
2 supertraits as underlying dimensions of personality:
Introversion
– Extraversion (E)
Emotionality – Stability (Neuroticism-N)
Eysenck Personality Questionnaire –
EPQ (1975)Eysenck later added a further dimension (EPQ-R, 1982):
Psychoticism (P) psychological detachment from others – NOT psychotic.
Слайд 16
Eysenck’s Supertraits Eysenck & Eysenck (1985)
Traits that make
up Extraversion:
Sociable, sensation-seeking, lively, carefree, dominant, active, assertive, surgent,
venturesomeTraits that make up Neuroticism:
Tense, anxious, irrational, depressed, guilt feelings, shy, moody, low self-esteem, emotional
Traits that make up Psychoticism:
Impulsive, aggressive, unemphatic, cold, egocentric, creative, impersonal, antisocial, tough-minded
Слайд 17
Biological Basis for Eysenck’s Personality Dimensions?
Extraversion – Introversion:
Ascending
reticular activating system (ARAS). Introverts have higher base arousal
levels, they are easily overaroused. Extraverts have lower base levels, they seek stimulation to bring their arousal up.Neuroticism:
Sympathetic nervous system. Some people have more responsive SNS than others (e.g. some remain calm during emergencies, some feel fear and some are terrified). People who score high on N scale are not necessarily neurotics – they are more prone to neurotic problems (e.g. panic attacks).
Psychoticism:
Androgen/testosterone levels…less researched
Слайд 19
The Big Five Dimensions of Personality
Researchers have proposed
theories of personality with a variety of number of
dimensionsCattell (1950) 16-factor theory of personality
Eysenck (1967) originally two, then revised to three supertraits
Today many researchers agree that there are 5 main factors that capture what we mean by personality
Costa & McCrae (1992) – “Five Factor Model”
Openness
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
(Memory aid – try to remember OCEAN)
Слайд 21
The Big Five Dimensions of Personality
Big Five Personality
traits have been found to be present:
In children
Across cultures
In
different languagesOver time
Basic review video
Слайд 22
What is Intelligence?
Innate, general cognitive ability (g)?
Spearman (1927)
A
collection of skills, e.g. reasoning, problem-solving, spatial, verbal &
social skills?Whatever intelligence/IQ tests measure?
Depends who you ask…..
Слайд 23 Do behaviours that reflect intelligence change with age,
culture… and circumstance?
What traits do you think characterise an
intelligent…6-month-old?
2-year-old?
University student?
60-year-old?
Think about how we differ in intelligence
What is Intelligence?
Слайд 24 Implicit Theories of Intelligence by Countries Around the
World
Implicit theories of intelligence by countries around the
world
Слайд 25
Early Influences: Francis Galton
Cousin of Charles Darwin
Measured psychophysical
abilities (e.g. reaction times, which directly correlates to IQ
by the way…why?)Argued that intelligence was largely hereditary
Found 100 men of ‘genius’ who possessed
“the reputation of a leader of opinion, or an originator, of a man to whom the world deliberately acknowledges itself largely indebted”.
They could all be traced to 300 families, and Galton concluded that “there is no escape from the conclusion that nature prevails enormously over nurture”
Any problems with Galton’s conclusions?
Слайд 26
Early Influences : Alfred Binet
The “father” of IQ
testing, he employed Piaget!
Attempts to measure a person’s Intelligence
Quotient (IQ) first started in 1905 when the French Government asked Binet & Simon to devise tests which would identify mentally retarded children as young as possible, in order to give them access to remedial teaching. Measured performance on tasks related to every day problems of life, e.g. naming objects in a picture, digit span, word definition
All tasks involve basic processes of reasoning?
Слайд 27
Theories of Intelligence
Charles Spearman (1927) was one of
the first psychologists to try to develop a theory
or model of intelligence.Used factor analysis to examine relationships between scores on different tests or sub-tests of intelligence
Spearman tested a large number of children on several measures, e.g. vocabulary, maths, spatial abilities.
Spearman found correlations on his tasks, i.e. people who do well on some intelligence tests also do well on others - “Positive Manifold”. If people did poorly on one test, they also tended to do poorly on other intellectual tests.
Слайд 28
Spearman’s two-factor theory
specific abilities – ‘s’
A factor of
intelligence specific to a particular task, e.g. mathematical intelligence,
spatial intelligencegeneral ability - ‘g’
A factor of intelligence common to all intellectual tasks, ‘mental energy’, underlies the positive correlations
Spearman claimed that intelligence is mainly made up of ‘g’ , with bright people having a lot, and dull people having less. People would also vary according to their specific abilities, ‘s’, i.e. one person might be better at maths, while another would be very good verbally.
Слайд 29
Spearman’s two-factor theory
According to Spearman, the most important
information about someone’s intellectual ability is an estimate or
measurement of ‘g’.‘g’ is still a widely supported concept
Слайд 30
Is Intelligence general or specific?
Broad agreement that there
is a general component of intelligence, but the debate
continuesSpearman (1927) – both, but ‘g’ much more important
Thurstone (1938) – claimed ‘g’ resulted from 7 distinct primary mental abilities (PMA: Verbal comprehension, Verbal fluency, Reasoning, Spatial visualisation, Number, Memory, Perceptual speed)
Cattell (1971) – claimed ‘g’ consisted of 2 related, but distinct components – fluid and crystallised intelligence
Слайд 31 Different proponents of multiple intelligence do not agree
on the possible facets.
Gardeners theory (1983) seven forms of
intelligence. Linguistic, Musical, Spatial, Bodily, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal & Logico-mathmatical.
Encompasses biological aspects & higher levels of creativity.
Multiple Intelligences
4/22/2015
Слайд 32
Li (1996) summarizes Gardner's theory as follows:
Premise 1:
If it can be found that certain brain parts
can distinctively map with certain cognitive functioning (A), then that cognitive functioning can be isolated as one candidate of multiple intelligences (B). (If A, then B).Premise 2: Now it has been found that certain brain parts do distinctively map with certain cognitive functioning, as evidenced by certain brain damage leading to loss of certain cognitive function. (Evidence of A). Conclusion: Therefore, multiple intelligences. (Therefore B.). (p. 34)
4/22/2015
Слайд 33 Triarchic theory of intelligence. Viewed other theories not
as incorrect but incomplete as they neglect social and
contextual factors.Analytic intelligence
Practical intelligence
Evidence for the above in street children in Brazil (Carraher & Schliemann 1985).
Creative intelligence
Review Video
Sternberg’s theory 1985
4/22/2015
Слайд 34 One of the other ways in which we
differ is emotion and motivation
Here we will briefly look
at an emotional relationship – attachmentThe strong emotional tie that a person feels towards certain ‘special’ people in their lives.
Characterised by “mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximity.” (Shaffer, 1993).
Note that an attachment is thus a two-way relationship.
Individual differences in emotion
Слайд 35
Theories of Attachment
Explaining why attachment occurs (the meaning
of ‘theory’ here is to try to offer an
explanation for why something happens)Psychodynamic approach proposes that as children we form attachments to whoever fulfills our basic needs (e.g. hunger)
Behaviourist approach claims that attachment is a a conditioned response, the caregiver being a conditioned reinforcer.
Both approaches are ‘Drive Reduction’ theories because they argue that the child becomes attached to a person because that person reduces primary drives such as hunger, thirst, etc.
Слайд 36
Theories of Attachment
But there are problems with drive
reduction theories of attachment:
Infants become attached to people who
don’t feed/soothe them (so primary drives are not necessarily reduced)Harlow’s work on separation with infant monkeys (e.g. Harlow & Zimmerman, 1959) demonstrated that comfort was more important than feeding
Ethics - Do you think that Harlow’s work on infant monkey’s (mostly conducted in the1950s & 1960s) would be allowed today?
Refrigerator mothers…..chillingly wrong!
Kanner, 1943.
Слайд 37
Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment
John Bowlby proposed what is
still a very influential theory of attachment
He argued that
attachment itself is an innate primary driveAttachment has evolved as a response which promotes infant survival.
Infants are equipped with ‘proximity maintaining behaviours’, e.g., crying, grasping, smiling.
Infants show monotropy – forming a strong attachment to one main person.
Attachment develops gradually, but there is a critical period of around 2 years.
Слайд 38 What about ways in which we differ that
go beyond the ‘normal’ range?
Finally – bear in mind
that most of the time we have been talking about individual differences that are within a ‘normal’ range, but what about abnormal or atypical differences?For example – intelligence is very different in many children with atypical development (developmental disorders) – think back to lecture 5 when we looked at children with Down syndrome
Слайд 39
Individual Differences Summary
People demonstrate individual differences in personality,
intelligence, and emotions (attachment)
Several theories have been proposed to
account for such differencesNext week we’ll look at how we measure differences
